My Visit to a Jewish Synagogue Essay

When I visited my first Jewish synagogue, I expected it to be very different. My previous experience with religious ceremonies was limited to a few visits to Baptist churches. The most surprising thing for me at this one was, oddly enough, its similarity to Christian services and rituals. I went into the religious visit expecting an enormous difference in the customs and perhaps even in the attitudes of the people attending the service. What I found instead was a religious ceremony very reminiscent of the Christian ones I’ve been to before. To begin, I was nervous about attending a service for a faith to which I did not belong and which was not even part of my heritage. Previously when I had attended Baptist worship, I had gone along or with a member of my family, who belonged to the church. I wasn’t sure how people of a different religion would react to having someone who was not of their faith visiting their place of worship. However, as soon as we walked into the synagogue, the people there were very friendly and not at all unused to having visitors. There was a collection of pamphlets set out for anyone unfamiliar with the Jewish religion and with Sabbath services and there were nametags for us to wear. The people were very friendly, asking us if we would like to know anything more about the synagogue. There were people standing in small groups too talking and catching up with the happenings of the week before. Overall, the interior of the synagogue reminded me very much of a church. The sanctuary was round or possibly octagonal, with the seating also set up in a semicircle. Inside of the sanctuary the atmosphere was different from that in the lobby, more serious I would say. I thought that it was lovely, and smaller than the chapel of any church I’ve ever attended. We were given prayer books as we entered, and when I leafed through mine I found that it was printed from right to left instead of left to right. This threw me off a little, in part because the text inside (the English translations of the Hebrew) were still printed left to right, though the book itself was read from right to left. I sat near the back, a good thing because it was mostly the people participating in the service who sat at the front. I noticed that several of the women had a tallit, or prayer shawl, and only knew the significance of them because of our readings and lessons. Many of the men were wearing a yarmulke as well, though not all of them were. As I looked around the room I noticed the Ark, which holds the Torah scrolls. As I continued to scan the room I also notice the menorah (candelabrum). The rabbi began the service fairly casually, greeting the congregation in English. After the English greeting came a more traditional greeting in Hebrew, and then a song to greet the Sabbath, or Shabbat, which is the word that was used at the synagogue. The Hebrew might have been strange to me, but there were English translations for just about everything in the prayer book, along with the prayers and songs written out in Hebrew. My personal favorite part of the service was the singing. There were two singers, one male and one female. All of the songs were beautiful, and caused me to consider the fact that many religions use songs and music in order to convey their messages. I believe that this is a good practice, because music is a common language, one that everybody can understand regardless of whether they speak Hebrew, or any other tongue. Although I’m not Jewish, I could appreciate the songs at the synagogue for their simple tunes and for the feelings and beliefs that clearly went into their writing and their performing. Also interesting was the way the rabbi tied many everyday events and circumstances into the faith. He discussed baseball in relation to the seder, talking about how his father had loved both things and had given him his own love of baseball and of the traditional supper. Again, though I don’t share the religion, I could understand and relate too much of what he was saying, because our parents shape the way that we all grow and learn and change. After the service, we were invited to share in the refreshments that were provided for congregation members. All of the people present were very willing to answer questions and to discuss the religion and were very open and friendly toward me at all times. My experience at the Jewish synagogue was very fun and enlightening. I gained a lot of firsthand knowledge of a religion I had only studied academically before. I’m not sure that I’ll ever have the chance to attend other types of religious services, but I may attempt to do so in the future. In my opinion, a visit like this one to another religion’s place of worship is the best possible way to learn more about a particular religion, no matter whether it’s for a class or simply to further one’s own personal knowledge.

Drugs and Society Essay

1b. List and describe briefly the major structures of the brain, as presented in your textbook, including the function of those elements that are most related to psychoactive drug reaction. The first layer of the brain is the cortex which covers the top and sides of the brain. This area controls reasoning and language, and this area will be less active when under sedative drugs. The basal ganglia are located underneath the cortex and it is made up of by the striatum. The striatum controls muscle tone and is part of the dopamine pathway which is a potential transport highway for psychoactive drugs. The hypothalamus is at the base of the brain and serves as liaison between the brain and pituitary gland. The pituitary hormonal output is involved in behaviors such as feeding and temperature regulation. The limbic system affects emotion, location memory, and physical activity. Along the brain stem are the medulla, midbrain, and pons from which contain the bulk of neurons that create dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The lower brain stem controls vomiting and respiratory functions. If affected, the respiratory function can be suppressed by drugs. 1c. Describe the life cycle of a typical neurotransmitter. A cell membrane with the uptake of a particular precursor absorbs amino acids to create a neurotransmitter. The amino acids undergo synthesis with a reaction with enzymes to become a neurotransmitter. Once created, the neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles until they are released into the synapse. Once released, the neurotransmitters will attempt to attach to the membrane of neurons. If the neurotransmitter does not make it to the neuron, then it will either absorb in the originating cell or be metabolized within the synapse. 2b. Differentiate between drug disposition tolerance, behavioral tolerance, and pharmacodynamics tolerance, and provide reasons why these concepts should be taken into account when determining the effects of a drug. Drug disposition tolerance is defined as the increase of the drug’s rate of metabolism or removal. The user may increase the amount of a drug taken due to the drug being metabolized too quickly or being removed from the body. A person may compensate their behavior when exposed to a drug overtime such as learning to drive while intoxicated. The impairment is reduced and this is known as behavioral tolerance. Pharmacodynamics tolerance is the main contributor to the need to increase the dosage of a drug in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms. The user does not feel the same effects of a dosage so the dosage must be increased in order to get the same feeling. 2d. Provide several specific personal and societal steps you would recommend in an effort to reduce the likelihood of adverse reactions to drugs taken in combination. The largest deficit that can be produced to avoid adverse reactions to drug taken in combination is to avoid doing it all such as alcohol and other depressants. Individuals that need to take multiple medications such as person with diabetes and high blood pressure need to be carefully monitored and educated on the effects of the medications individually and the effects of the medications when combined. 3b. Explain the basic rationale and theoretical foundations for the extensive use of amphetamine in the treatment of ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder). ADHD individuals have deficits involved with the functions of executive control within the brain. This control center affects concentration, hyperactivity, and learning. Amphetamines have been shown to produce a calming effect upon the individual from the amphetamines ability to increase brain catecholamine activity whereas ADHD individuals suffer from catecholamine deficits in the prefrontal cortex. 3c. Provide your personal viewpoint on major concerns about ADHD diagnoses and the efficacy of drug treatments that have led to recent controversy. The basis of diagnoses of ADHD has not been fully researched due to any widely accepted knowledge as to why stimulants are effective in treating hyperactivity. The causes of ADHD are still not thoroughly understood. There have also been non-stimulant drugs that have been shown to be just as effective as stimulants such as Strattera and Atomoxetine. I believe that ADHD itself is a complicated issue that requires multiple points of attack such as the use of stimulant and non-stimulant drugs. What may work on one individual may not work on another. 4a. Provide evidence of your understanding of the ways in which time course events of barbiturate and benzodiazepine actions contribute to the onset of psychological and/or physical dependence. Barbiturate are fast acting drugs that may work within fifteen minutes and stay in the system for up to three hours. Due to the rapid activity of the barbiturates, they serve as a strong reinforcement to users due to the drug produced a desired effect quickly and leaving the body just as quickly. Benzodiazepine takes longer to initialize, but also stay in the body for up to ten hours. Barbiturates are taken in higher doses more rapidly, while Benzodiazepine is taken at lower does. Withdrawal symptoms of barbiturates from chronic symptoms are severe due to the rapidness the drug leaves the user’s body without the user’s body being able to adapt to the drug adequately. 4b. Describe the key functions of GABA (g-aminobutryic acid) in producing the effects of various sedative-hypnotic agents, with specific reference to benzodiazepines. GABA is a neurotransmitter that is found in CNS areas and deals with inhibitory functions. Benzodiazepine molecules are strongly attracted to the GABA receptor sites and when bound to the GABA receptor, the Benzodiazepine molecules will increase the inhibitory effects of GABA on the receptors.

Central Heating

THE HISTORY OF CENTRAL HEATING Brittany Science, 4th, Mr. Leetch, History of an Invention 2/8/13 The History of Central Heating Systems By Brittany Hicken I. Who invented the central heating system? A. We don’t know exactly who invented the first one B. Ancient Romans created the hypocaust C. Greeks created their own version of the hypocaust D. Sergius Orata (80 B. C. ) E. Louis Savot- French (1600) F. Dalsme (1600) G. Dr. John Clarke (1652) H. Benjamin Thompson (1796) I. Count Rumford (1796) J. William Cook (1745) K. William Strutt (1805) L. Eliphalet Knott (1833) M. Isaac Orr (1836) N. Professor Warren Johnson (1873)O. Milton Fessler (1905-1908) II. What were the changes over time? A. It was first the hypocaust, we don’t know when it was invented B. Fixed central hearths date back to 2500 B. C. , they were excavated in Greece C. An under floor heating system was installed in the house of King Arzawa in Beycesutan, Turkey in 1300 B. C. D. The Romans brought technology to a high standard, by creating systems designed by Sergius Orata E. Crude fireplaces were made around 800 A. D. these were widespread in Europe in the 1300’s F. After the 14th century, the next important event was the chimney.Early chimneys were large, so to allow chimney sweepers to climb into them G. Masonry stoves became very common in the 1500’s H. Louis Savot invented the raised grate system and designed a circulating fireplace in the early 1600’s I. The way of stove heating soon had advanced. The first free standing stove, or not connected to anything so it’s not mounted to anything, was the Furnus Acapnos or the smokeless stove invented by Dalsme in France in the later days of 1600’s J. The earliest stove to be introduced to North America is the iron box stove invented by Dr. John Clarke in about 1652 K.William Cook was the first to propose the way of steam heating in 1745 L. M. Bonne constructed an actual hot water heating system instead o f the steam heating system in the late 1700’s M. William Strutt invented a warm air furnace that included of a riveted, wrought iron air chamber encased with bricks. The rivets help seal the air chamber to be air tight, in 1805. This chamber has ducts fed with heated air into rooms. Strutt’s hot air furnaces were referred to as cockle, belper, or derby stoves N. In 1833, Eliphalet Knott invented the stove with base burners O.In 1836, Isaac Orr invented the airtight stove so there would be no heat loss on the inside chamber P. Professor Warren Johnson taught at a school up in Wisconsin and back then the only way to change the temperature was to run downstairs and tell the janitor to turn the wheel in a way to let either more steam or less steam into the room. He later created and patented a thermostat that relied on compressed air to make the valves work. He then later created the Johnson Electric Service company Q. â€Å"Coal-less† Mondays were introduced in 191 7 saving coal and stimulating the use for oil and gas since there wasn’t much coal around.R. Milton Fessler invented residential oil burner in California so that residents could have their house easily heated without stoking coal ever hour between 1905-1908 S. By 1926, the Electric Refrigeration News began to publish, â€Å"heating had advanced from the campfire to something so silent, so automatic that we just take for granted and ‘just turn the heat on’ III. When did initially stop changing and industries stated introducing something different and not a huge improvement? A. From the mid 1920’s-1936 B. People started to take the silent heating system for granted C.People were inventing little accessories or little parts to go on to the latest thing but nothing much bigger or more important happened IV. Where did the inventions take place? A. Rome B. Greece C. France D. The United States E. Turkey F. Europe V. Why it was initially created? A. To heat bath water in the Roman Empire B. To heat homes so that people could live comfortably C. To heat specific rooms D. The thermostat was created to control the amount of wanted heat in any specific room, or house VI. What was the hypocaust and how did the hypocaust work? A. The word â€Å"hypocaust† refers to a subfloor radiant heating system B.The word hypocaust come from the Latin word â€Å"Hypocaustum† which meant burning underneath C. These were important to ancient romans because it heated their baths and as well as large rooms D. The small pillars of stacked bricks would have supported a fire proof floor that was heated by air circulation under the floor in a chamber with an external furnace E. The hot gases at the top of this hypocaust below the floor would have been up to about 400 degrees Fahrenheit F. Addition to the hypocaust, some romans had hollow walls to help keep even temperature and prevent condensationWorks Cited By Brittany Hicken A Brief History of Heatin g and Cooling America 0Homes. †Ã‚  Sustainable Dwelling. † William Furr, 10 Jan. 2011. Web. 27 Jan. 2013. â€Å"Archrnews. com. †Ã‚  Archrnews. com. N. p. , 12 Nov. 2001. Web. 4 Jan. 2013. http://www. achrnews. com/articles/an-early-history-of-comfort-heating â€Å"A Short History of Central Heating. †Ã‚  Taco. N. p. , 2012. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. â€Å"Hypocaust. †Ã‚  About. com. N. s. Gill, n. . Web. 11 Jan. 3013. Duffy, Catherine. â€Å"Who Invented the Central Heating System? †Ã‚  EHow. Demand Media, 04 Nov. 2009. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. This paragraph is a run though of the timeline events. Going all the way back to 3000 B. C. the first Hypocaust was born. Ancient Romans had invented the hypocaust. The hypocaust is an under floor heating system that is a chamber that collects heat and leaves it under there. Going up to 2500 B. C. the first fixed central hearths were first excavated in Greece. In 1300 B. C. King Arzawa had an under floor heatin g system installed into his palace in Turkey. Later in 80 B. C. Sergius Orata started to create designs for heating systems and brought technology to the Romans. Crude fireplaces were made around 800 A. D. and were later widely spread throughout Europe in the 1300’s. The chimney was invented around the 1400’s. They were large in diameter so that the Chimney Sweepers could fit up into them to clean them out. 100 years later in 1500, masonry stoves became the â€Å"new thing† to have.They also became very common. Louis Savot invented the raise gate system and designed a circulating fireplace. In early 1600’s, the first standing stove, or not connected to a wall or mounted to anything, was the Furnus Acapnos, or the smokeless stove, invented by Dalsme. He also introduced fresh fuel in the same opening as combustion air, directing all combustion products over already-burning fuel, a design that ensured complete combustion. The iron box stove, the earliest sto ve to be introduced into North America, was invented by Dr. John Clarke.William cook was the first to propose the way of using steam to heat up rooms, in 1745. In the late 1700’s, M Bonne invented an actual hot water heating system instead of William Cook’s steam heating system. In 1805, William Strutt invented a warm air furnace that had a riveted, wrought iron air chamber encased with bricks. This chamber had ducts that fed into rooms and blew heated air into the rooms. The way this chamber was built was to keep the hot air from escaping from the chamber and having heat loss. They were referred to as cockle, belper, or derby stoves.Isaac Orr invented the airtight stove so there would be no heat loss inside the chamber in 1836. Professor Warren Johnson taught at a school in Wisconsin, where the only means of room temperature control was to tell the janitor to go to the basement and adjust steam valves. Johnson developed an electric annunciator system in 1873 that was used to signal the janitor when heat needed adjusting. He continued experimenting and in 1885, patented a thermostat that relied on compressed air to operate steam valves. He then established the Johnson Electric Service Co. to manufacture and install his system.Johnson went on to invent the humidistat for control of the humidity in buildings in 1905. In 1905-1908, Milton Fessler invented a residential oil burner so that residents could have their own house heated easily without stoking coal in a fireplace every hour. Coal-less Mondays were introduced in 1917 to save coal and stimulate the use for oil and gas since there wasn’t much coal around or to be found regularly. In 1926, the Electric Refrigeration News began to publish that heating had advanced from the campfire in a cave, to something so silent, so unnoticeable.And in present day, thermostat controls air and ducts are fed in a way we can’t see the m and as well as fed to each room through a vent in which air i s blown out of. We take advantage of just â€Å"turning on the heat† every day that we don’t even bother to thing what had to happen way back when to heat thing up. The way of heating has been a system that not everyone thinks about. It has gone from the campfire, to the hypocaust, to stoves, to compressed valves, to thermostats, to an automatic heating with the push of a button. Over time, the way of heating has improved and impressed many along the way.It used to be having a chimney and stoking coals for five minutes ever hour just to keep the coals burning and hot and giving off heat. To progress this way of heating, there cannot be only one inventor. There are many who have created accessories, or major parts to different systems. The inventors go from ancient Roman empires and ancient Greek empires to people we have never heard of, but have improved life as we know it tremendously. This is the way of heating. Going into B. C. years, there were some unknown dates a nd some known dates. First was campfire.We all have heard off the story where cavemen are in a stark cold cave with a campfire. That’s just an obvious fact. Later on the hypocaust was made my ancient Romans and ancient Greeks. The word hypocaust refers to a subfloor radiant heating system: suspended floor with space for gases and hot smoke. The word hypocaust comes from the Latin  word Hypocaustum  which originally meant a ‘burning underneath'. Hypocausts were very important to Roman’s system of heating. The hypocaust heated baths and large rooms. Along with the hypocaust, there were sometimes hollow walls in ancient structures.These hollow walls would help maintain even temperatures as well as eliminate condensation. The small pillars of stacked bricks would have supported a fireproof floor that was heated by means of air circulation in the under floor chamber with an external furnace as heat source. The art and science of the hypocaust systems was lost afte r the fall of the Roman Empire. Western heating science had advanced very little in the period of the Dark Ages. Around 2500B. C fixed central hearths were excavated in Greece. In 80 B. C. Sergius Orata brought high art designs to Roman technology.At first Romans were only heating up their floors, but later used heated walls and some were designed as early as warm air heating systems. By this, introducing heated air through floor openings. This is the end of the B. C. heating ways. Now going into the A. D. times, from 1600-1800 specifically. In the late 1600’s, Dalsme invented the first freestanding stove, not mounted to a wall, called the Furnus Acapnos to the smokeless stove. He also introduced fresh fuel in the same combustion air directing all products over already burning fuel, a design that ensured itself. The smokeless stove was a great advance but, it was accepted slowly.The earliest stove introduced into North America was the cast iron box stove which was invented by Dr. John Clarke in 1652. This kind of stove was originally made in Holland and later imported into England after1600. Louis Savot invented a raised gate system and designed a circulating fireplace. He used a hollow iron bottom and back in a hearth, at which cold air entered the bottom, was warmed, and entered the room through openings, in early 1600’s. In 1653, Sir Hugh Platt proposed using hot water to dry gun powder and Sir Martin Triewald proposed warming greenhouses with hot water.This might be referred to as the hydronic system, which is the heating of an object by water. In 1735, John Desaguiliers designed the first modern heating blower which was turned by hand by an operator referred to as the ventilator for the British Houses of Parliament. The design of centrifugal, acting from or away from the center, blowers was continually improved in England and Europe during 18-19 century. The early fans were mostly operated by steam engines. In the late 1700’s, M. Bonn e in France constructed an actual hot water heating system using a boiler.The French idea was introduced into England by the Marquis de Chabannes later in 1816. By the 1790’s, the steam heating way had only progressed in England, being used to heat mills and factories. The advantage of steam heating is the avoidance of the expense of insurance. This is the end of the 16th and 17th century. Moving ahead to the 18th and 19th century, there were many important events, inventions, and inventors. In England at about 1805, William Strutt had invented at warm air furnace that included a riveted wrought iron air chamber that is encased with bricks.The design had a couple inches of space between the brick and iron chamber allows air to circulate. A large space on the outside is split horizontally on two sections, the lower for cool air and the upper for heated air. Cool air moves from the lower chamber through the openings and moved out through the upper openings into the heated air c hamber. As well as ducts were fed into rooms in which heated air is blown out of them. His hot air furnaces were referred to as cockle, belper, or derby stoves.December of 1815, Marquis de Chabannes obtained a patent for a method of conducting air, and regulating the temperatures in houses or buildings. Hot air systems were introduced in the U. S. before 1820. The fist building to be centrally heated was the Massachusetts Medical College in 1816. In 1831, Angier Perkins realized the drawbacks of bulky heating systems. So he designed a high pressure hot water system using a small diameter, thick walled wrought iron pipe that he patented. His system heated water in pipe coils placed in a furnace, then circulated hot water to coils of pipe in the rooms to be heated.In 1833, Eliphalet Knott invented the base burners for stoves, and in 1836, Isaac Orr invented the air tight stove so that there would be no heat loss. Joseph Nason and James Walworth introduced the Perkins method of high pr essure hot water heating system in the U. S†¦ But in that same year of 1842, the method was not used. The use of hot water systems had been limited till 1880’s when that had surprisingly become popular. Steam heating for residents had rapidly declined and hot water became the dominant method especially in the eastern part of the United States.Joseph and James installed steam systems afterward, using small diameter wrought iron pipes. They installed numerous amounts of steam systems in large buildings, including the White House and the Capitol building. In 1846, James and Nason installed the first fan type system for the United States Customs House in Boston. Later in 1849, F. P. Oliver had invented a stove with thermostatic draft control. By 1851, catalogs started to list cast iron registers, which are often 12-by-24-inch grills covering a large air-intake tube. Outflow vents vary in size depending on the room.A common size is 10 by 12 inches for most living spaces, avai lable in black, white, finished, gold, bronze, or just with nickel plating. They would package them with straw in a wooden crate. Packing was expensive. Stephen Gold was a Connecticut stove maker who began experimenting. The steam heating systems seemed too complicated and unsafe, but furnaces had seemed completely uncomplicated and very safe. Many people were uncomfortable in building heated by air because they had seamed scorched. Gold had overcome these issues and was granted a patent for improvement in warming houses by steam.Gold’s system was unique at the time. Large steam systems used coils or rows of pipe to heat rooms, while Gold used the first radiator, a device consisting of two dimpled iron sheets that were riveted together at dimples. The edges were rolled over with a piece of cord as a gasket, which is a rubber seal. Gold’s radiator came to be called â€Å"the mattress radiator† due to the way it looked, in 1854. In the same year, Gold invented a b oiler which was made of wrought iron and included a draft regulator along with a water valve.This system was later manufactured by Connecticut Steam Heating Company. Radiators date to 1863. Joseph Nason and a new face of Robert Briggs patented a new design including vertical wrought iron tubes screwed into a cast iron base. The golden age for warm air furnaces was after the Civil War. In 1869 a shoemaker by the name of Benjamin F. Sturtevant patented a combination fan and heat exchanger for two purposes: 1) for cooling 2) for heating. He established a company to manufacture and sell fans and heating systems. Here is a story that took place in 1873.Professor Warren Johnson taught at a school in Wisconsin where the only way to change the temperature was to run down to the janitor and have him turn the valves of air to change it to either warm or cool. Johnson developed an electric annunciator, which is electronic signaling device, system that was used to signal the janitor when heatin g need to be adjusted. In 1885, he created and patented a thermostat that relied on compressed air to operate the valves. He later established the Johnson Electric Service Company to manufacture and in install his systems. By 1874, Nelson Bundy invented the most popular cast iron radiator.In 1886, Albert Butz patented a thermostat that controlled damp drafts. The thermostat was electric, using battery to activate a spring loaded motor. In the 1890’s, the heating systems were quite sophisticated. Some included thermostatic and zone control, which is a forced air system. All of the early inventions of forced air systems had concerned themselves with large buildings. These combinations of the 1890’s of a fan and a heater were referred to as the plenum or the hot blast systems. In 1895, Charles Foster patented a damper type register. In 1899, Novelty Manufacturing Company was the first to make the steel register.The most successful hot blast system was the Vento sectional cast iron surface invented by John Spear in 1903, which was manufactured by American Radiator Company. Professor Warren Johnson went to invent the humidistat to control the humidity of a home in 1905. In that same year, manufacturers were frightened and formed the Federal Furnace League to elevate warm air heating to the rightfully deserved position. In 1905-1908, Milton Fessler invented a residential oil burner so that residents could have their own house heated easily without stoking coal in a fireplace every hour.During 1912, residents and homeowners had to wake up early to stoke the coal in the fire and replace the coal with fresh coal. Guesswork and experience helped tell how much coal to use. The first electric coal stoker that was controlled by a thermostat was invented in 1912, and by 1920 electric coal stokers could be found by anyone. During WWI, there was a coal shortage and the government had to find a way to conserve energy gave a slight nudge to the automatic systems. Lawrence Soule improved his idea of Aerofin heating surfaces. This Aerofin idea used spirally wrapped copper sheets to produce a light weight eat exchanger, during the 1920’s. After WWI, Butz Thermoelectric Regulator Company had pushed the idea of oil burner controls and had met with the Honeywell Heating Specialties in 1927 to form the Minneapolis Honeywell Regulator Company, or know to us today as Honeywell Incorporated. The heating systems of the 19th century operated with a low pressure, only using one to two pipes and a boiler or steam engine for the steam source. This is pretty much the last of the 18th-19th century events and inventions. This last paragraph explains the inventions and events in the 20th century.There are four main different types of modern central heating, consisting of gas and oil burners, solid fuel central heating, radiators, and electric heating. Gas and oil burners can be chimneys because they use gas to and oil to burn the wood to make a fire, wh ich warms up the room. Solid fuel central heating systems provide hot water, warm water, or any kind of heated liquid. Radiators  are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating. They distribute the heat by natural air circulation.The process of electric heating involves electrical energy being converted to heat through an electrical appliance. Other ways to heat homes are wood stoves, forced air systems, and by radiant heat. We also use thermostats that just â€Å"change† the temperature of rooms by the push of a button, that we often just take advantage of it. Houses often had ducts that come from a furnace that go to each room and blow air when you change the temperature on the thermostat. Some houses have a large panel of widows instead of a wall and the suns radiation waves go through the window and transfer into radiant heat to warm out the house.Another system houses have is called the forced air s ystem. Air is pushed by fans into a furnace and when it comes out, there are more fans after the furnace to push the air down the ducts and into the vents which lead into the room. This leads up to the year of 2013. So as it’s obvious, central heating has come a long way and improved much over the years. Many are impressed by this complicated technology and impressed by the intricate designs and inventions over the years. As spoiled people with high expectations of high quality technology, we have taken advantage of the heating systems.We just â€Å"turn on the heat† or â€Å"turn on the AC† and not even thinking about what has had to happen for this technology to come up to where it is. Heating is very important because without it we would not exist. We would freeze to death, literally. We owe a lot of thanks to all the inventors way back then who made this invention a lifestyle and a luxury. Heating has advanced so tremendously, from the campfire in a cave to something so silent so unnoticeable in life, from the hypocausts to the furnace, from the freestanding stoves to the chimneys.When we use heat or use a thermostat, we don’t tend to think about how heat has progressed. We think about the necessity of warmth, and how we are going to â€Å"freeze to death. † This paper and research has made me more aware of what happened for society to get heat, and has made me appreciate what I have. Fifty-four percent of the energy used in the average home is for heating and cooling rooms, and there are 114,199,622 households in the US as of the 2010 census. That’s a lot of energy used! The most simplistic way to put it is that we take advantage of things we have every day. I am thankful for heat, are you?

Tesco expanding in Dubai Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Tesco expanding in Dubai - Essay Example It mainly desired to present value-added products such as consumer electronics, clothes, consumer financial services, internet services, gas, consumer telecoms and many other useful articles. Other than this, Tesco Plc also expanded in varied other segments such as retailing of books, furniture, petrol and software; financial services, DVD rental, music downloads and telecoms and internet services. Not only this, Tesco Plc also operates in many other segments such as banking, fuels, tech-support, film making, technika and Tesco tyres. Therefore, due to the presence of varied types of essential articles, the retailer of Tesco Plc became successful to position itself as one of the renowned brand in the entire globe among many other rival retailers. This helped the organization of Tesco Plc to fulfil its vision to offer qualitative products at lowest price so as to maintain its portfolio in this segment effectively (Tesco, 2013). However, in order to enhance its brand value and dominanc e within the rival players of the retailing segment, Tesco Plc decided to enter and expand into the competitive markets of Dubai. This might proved effective for the organization of Tesco Plc to reduce its threats and enhance its strengths. Products of Tesco Plc Discussion Description of the organisational context of Tesco Plc Tesco Plc is a multinational retailer of grocery and general merchandise of United Kingdom, founded by Jack Cohen. Being headquartered in Cheshunt of United Kingdom, it operates successfully in many regions and markets in the entire globe. It includes stores in 15 countries such as Asia, Europe, North America, Malaysia, Republic of Ireland and many others. So, it is spotted as one of the leading British retailer in terms of total sales and brand image as compared to many other rival players. Along with this it also comprises a market share of 14.6 % and customer base of more than 1 million in both domestic as well as international markets. As a result, the mar ket value and distinctiveness of Tesco Plc is enhancing at a rapid pace as compared to other retailers such as Wal-Mart and Carrefour. Thus, it helped in enhancement of the revenues by ?64.826 billion by the year 2013 (Tesco, 2013). Apart from this, being a public limited organization, the net income and total assets enhanced by ?124.0 million and ?50.129 billion by 2013. And the total turnover of Tesco Plc in domestic or UK market is ?3.5 billion and in global market is ?8.6 billion. Along with this, it includes employees of more than 270,000 in domestic market and 150,000 staffs in global markets. This acted as one of the vital strengths of the organization of Tesco Plc that enhanced its market image and position in international perspectives. Therefore, in order to present the advantage of its value-added products, it decided to enter into Dubai (Tesco, 2013). Although, the retail market of Dubai is extremely

Crime and Los Angeles Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Crime and Los Angeles - Case Study Example Though recently there have been lots of security measures undertaken by the government, yet there happened to be crimes occurring in and around the city. The purpose of this paper is to report one of the crimes that had taken place in the city and produce a critical view of it.In this paper, I have taken the case of Thelma Todd, a popular actress of the late 1920s and early 1930s. Though this case may appear out of date, I am quite interested in it because the investigation was not fully successful and it only ended with guess. So, let us see the case in detail.Thelma Todd was a school teacher and model before she started her career as an actress. She was born in Lawrence, MA in 1905. She grew as a very popular and leading actress by acting in more than fourty films. She established a great career and was so successful with every role she took. It was on the morning of December 15, 1935 the world knew that she was dead. It was a great shock for millions of people around the world. He r body was discovered in a car, just beside her own restaurant. At the first glace of the investigation it was decided that the case was a suicide as the carbon monoxide fumes were flowing inside the car with all the doors and glasses shut. Few people who were closely associated with the actress also supported this judgment because they had seen her caught between several problems and that she was always trying to put an end to everything. SUICIDE OR MURDER According to the Grand Jury investigation, it was reported that there were signs of wound in her face and mouth. This view supported the opinion that she might have been knocked off and then had been placed in the car by the murderers. The spots of blood on her face was highly supporting for this murdering view. But despite of all the attempts of the jury, nothing could be found as the true cause of the death. So the Grand Jury finally ruled her death as suicide. The inquest into her death revealed more questions than answers. Many suggested that Thelma may have committed suicide. It was not an uncommon method for such an act, but then murders had been committed in a similar fashion. TRACES In addition, if she had killed herself, where had the blood on her face and clothing come from' To make matters more suspicious, an autopsy had revealed that Thelma had suffered a broken nose, several broken ribs and enough bruises to suggest that she had been roughed up. Minute and fresh finger prints on her body as well as in the body of car seemed to arose plenty problems, but nothing helped in pin pointing the true criminal. SUSPECTED ONES The inquest into her death revealed more questions than answers. Roland West, the leading director and her husband seemed to be likely the suspect. But there was no strong evidence to prove it and many confusing things emerged making the case unsolvable. Another important person to be involved in the suspect list is Luciano, a dangerous mobster of that time. There was too no evidence to prove him as the cause because many were afraid of him and his notorious group. Thus, the case remained unsettled even after so many years. CONCLUSION No one were able to find out what really happened on the early hours of December 15th. Thelma Todd's case still seems to puzzle everyone. Many believe that the restless soul of Thelma Todd, still wanders around the place where she had lived. Many have seen strange things taking place in the area surrounding where her soul departed. Whatever it is, from revisiting the case I would like to conclude that this was one such crime for which there was no answer. Even now, there seem to be crimes happening like this which are really challenging for the

Capital Investment Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Capital Investment Process - Essay Example Therefore, it was always implied that despite techniques used to make the future more clear, capital investment decision requires a manager to use intuition. This study of a Boston Mayflower - a residential social landlord with about 5,000 houses - indicates that more accent must be put on qualitative appraisal techniques. The essay begins with building a theoretical base to get the reader familiar with some basic concepts of capital investment appraisal theory. The second part of the essay is devoted to a step-by-step analysis of the investment project of Boston Mayflower. This part of the essay is devoted to the description of methods used in the analysis of capital investment. Developed theoretical frameworks include several different techniques of analysis varying mainly in measures of investments. In other words, it is clear that the ultimate goal of every investment is maximisation of owner's wealth; however specific characteristics of every project oblige management to choose carefully and with correspondence to the most vital needs of the business. The most typical example is the choice between long-term investment project with high return value and short-term project but with lesser return. Although the first development plan will lead to better profits in the end, sometimes a company chooses the second one. That means the time factor is more important for owners than greater profits in the illustrated case. Generally, capital investment decisions are always connected to the following list of specific features: a significant outlay of cash; long-term involvement with greater risks and uncertainty because forecasts of the future are less reliable; irreversibility of some projects due to their specialised nature, for example, plant which having been bought with a specific project in mind may have little or no scrap value; a significant time lag between commitment of resources and the receipt of benefits; management's ability is often stretched with some projects demanding an awareness of all relevant diverse factors; limited resources require priorities on capital expenditure; project completion time requires adequate continuous control information as costs can be exceeded by a significant amount. (McGrath, 1998) These characteristics make the managerial decision even more important, as it must be connected with the strategy of a company. Simply, a manager should choose not the most profit-making project, but the most suitable one for the business strategy of his/her company. This statement leads to a careful choice of the evaluation technique used to determine, which investment plan complements best the chosen strategy. There several factors, which should be taken into consideration during evaluation of investment opportunities: initial cost of the project; phasing of the expenditure; estimated life of the investment; amount and timing of the

The Day that My Father Left Home Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Day that My Father Left Home - Essay Example I remember one particular evening when my father came back from a trip. He was very late and my mother was not happy because she had been waiting so long, and the food had been ready for several hours. Soon after he arrived, I went to bed and I could hear my parents arguing in the kitchen below. My father was shouting and my mother was crying. Suddenly I heard a door slamming and I looked out of my bedroom window. He was marching down the street in the rain, carrying his bag and looking very angry. I went to speak to my mother but she sent me to bed. Later that night I could hear her crying and this made me very worried indeed. I could not sleep because I thought that this time my father really had left home for good. I thought he would never come back. I was only twelve years old and I imagined that I would have I would have to look after my mother now, because my father was no longer at home. This was a big responsibility and it was terrifying to think that everything I had known would now change. I thought I was too young for such a big responsibility. My mother worked for my father, and so if they got divorced, she would have no money and no job. Our house, and our plans for my studies at school and then later at college, would all be destroyed. That night I tried to sleep but it was not easy. I had a dream that some big, black birds had come to take away my clothes, and that I had to walk in the street in my underwear. This was a very upsetting dream and I wondered what it meant. The next morning I spoke to my mother about my worries and my troublesome dream. She told me that I should not worry because my father would come back in a few days. She looked so sad, and I wondered if she was just saying that to comfort me and make me get ready for school. I went to school as normal and for three days there was no sign of life from my dad. Eventually, on the fourth day after school I came home and saw his shoes at the door of the house. My joy was very great, and I hugged my father and told him that I had thought he was never going to come back. He just laughed and said that I would understand about such things when I was older. This experience made me think that whatever happens in my life, I will not leave someone in an angry m ood. I think it is better to settle any different opinions with kindness, and to protect children from the fear and pain that I felt on that night. The time when dad didn’t return. Lipogram version. Our house in China was rather small and I recalled how much at home I was in its small rooms. The place had clothing samples and pieces of material scattered around. Mum and Dad were in the clothing trade. Dad had to locate new products to sell, and Mother helped him with the accounts. I missed him when he was gone, and I was glad to see him when he came home. I recall one particular night when Dad came home late. He was so tired and Mother was not happy since she had waited so long, and the dinner was warm for ages. Soon after he arrived, I went upstairs and I could hear Mum and Dad arguing in the rooms below. Dad was shouting and Mum was weeping . All at once I heard a door slamming and I saw Dad out of the window. He was marching down the street in the rain, holding his suitcas e and looking quite mad. I went to Mother and then she sent me upstairs. Later that night I could hear her weeping and this made me most worried indeed. I could not sleep that night. I thought that this time Dad had deserted us. I thought he would not come back again. I was only 12 and I imagined that I would support Mother now, since Dad was no longer at home. This

Race & Racism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Race & Racism - Essay Example Racism defines the power of a particular group to eliminate other minorities in various ways. It does not have to rely on physical distinctions though, because it can be in the form of distinguishing the culture and behavior of a certain group. Social and political areas of the society can contribute to the idea of racism as they stand for the general population. Racism affects not only the people who are responsible enough to handle such discriminations but also the children or the young generations (Coombs, 1994; Semchison, 2007). The young generation is corrupted as to how the government used them in order to control the indigenous people. Commonly, skin color determines the opportunity for a child from schools, jobs and even in marriage (Smith, 2003). Discrimination among the aboriginal Australians have been a feature of its history. Stealing the generation is just one of the marks of racism in Australia; racism also includes segregating the aborigines and forced them to work for a mission. This scenario largely impacted the health of the aborigines. Their lives have been put into an unvarying threat and losing their lands created more tension. Relocating can be treated as the main reason why the aborigines have developed health problems because of the frustrations and other deprivation they have encountered. They have been put into a violent discipline where they were restricted to take advantage of what belongs to them at first (Semchison, 2007). A concrete example of deprivation is that, funds for healthcare are not adequate to respond to the needs of the people. Moving into the urban life made it difficult for the aboriginal people to deal with their health problems because they cannot, for a fact, afford the medications. Mostly, people are being dominated by those of power because of their poverty. Results are reflected through the poor health, substance abuse, unemployment, violence against women, deprivation on

Read the article, then provide a critical review of the article, Assignment

Read the article, then provide a critical review of the article, summarize the article and provide your critical interpretation of the article - Assignment Example Unproven recent house bubbles and low-interest rates have brought about froth in house markets and result in a financial instability. The task remains for central banks to maintain a balance between igniting another house price bubbles and a need to raise economic status from the ground. Riksbank also experienced the dilemma. Fluctuations of the house prices and their effects on real outcomes of the economy, households spending, health of financial intermediaries and the mortgage borrowing have been re-examined majorly on their sources. Macroeconomics has recently questioned the role of the housing finance and also the implication of house price and monetary policy on house price fluctuations. Data from such long history has been collected, the first covers non-financial businesses for 17 economies, disaggregated bank credit data and real estate lending. The second data covers 14 to 17 economies unearthed long-run house prices from 1870-2012. Policy trilemma of international macroeconomic is used, to provide sources of exogenous variation in domestic monetary conditions and perturbations of domestic interest rates. Also to estimate the impact of monetary conditions on real estate on house prices an instrument variable, IV strategy, was used (Jorda, Schularick & Taylor 5). Trilemma is used to identify perturbations of domestic interest rates that are unrelated to domestic economic conditions. Only one or two of the three trilemma policies will be selected, capital mobility, fixed exchange rates or monetary policy. Exogenous fluctuations effects on the link between mortgage credit price on house price busts and booms are measured using strategy IV. Trilemma when measuring exchange rates uses a base year of some country such as the U.S that does not take into consideration other economies when formulating their foreign monetary policy choices. As a result of the

Scenario Planning for Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships Term Paper

Scenario Planning for Multi-Stakeholder Partnerships - Term Paper Example The antibiotic will also help CMS to save more money (28,000 dollars, annually). The administrator also acknowledges the drawbacks that come with the CMS using the antibiotic. The administration is for instance at home with the concerns that border on the lack of familiarity with the drug and the addition of a step to an already busy pre-operation nurses’ workload. However, the administrator’s initial statement and vouching for the antibiotic is premised on the antibiotic not have its pitfalls, but its benefits far outweighing its disadvantages. Stakeholder’s Background Thinking and First Responses and the Administrator’s Response Option Choice The stakeholder’s background thinking and the first response is largely ambivalent. While there are those who readily welcome the introduction of the antibiotic in CMS’ surgical interventions, others are diametrically opposed to the same idea. For instance, the pharmacist is positive about the introduc tion of the antibiotic, because he has learned about the drug. The financial analyst is likely to welcome this move since it will help save 28,000 dollars annually. The preoperational nurse and surgeon are not in support of the antibiotic. Although the nurse is interested in making her efforts patient-centered, she is worried that the move will add her other responsibilities at the preoperational stage. The surgeon, on the other hand, loathes government mandates and regards them as unnecessary since he has a generally positive track record for patients who have come from surgery. However, he lacks knowledge on the actual rate of post-surgery wound infections, due to his surgery patients. In this case, it is important that the administrator acknowledges these concerns since they are legitimate. Conversely, the administrator should consult the opposing team so as to place modalities on the introduction of the antibiotic. The modalities are to alleviate the setbacks that may shortchang e the preoperational nurse and the surgeon. During these consultations, the administrator must make it clear that the introduction of the antibiotic is inevitable. How to Communicate With the Stakeholders According to Dewar (2010), the best way of communicating with these stakeholders in order to convince them to welcome the use of the antibiotic is a dialogue. The administration can initiate and facilitate the dialogue by welcoming the stakeholders to a meeting. Efforts must be made to ensure that the meeting remains a dialogue instead of a monologue. In this light, the preoperational nurse, the surgeon and the like-minded who have reservations towards the introduction of the preoperational antibiotic must state their standpoints and qualify them. From this angle, the administration and the stakeholders must work together to designate modalities that can mitigate the demerits that accost the use of the new antibiotic. On the same wavelength, it will be imperative that the administr ation expounds on the need to integrate the antibiotic to CMS’ surgical intervention.

Answer exam question1a 1b Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Answer exam question1a 1b - Essay Example Nonetheless, this section of paper will focus on discussing the internal and external causes of conflicts in organizations operating in an international context. Internal Conflict Internal sources of conflicts involve interpersonal conflicts among people within the organization; for instance, this can be between employees or employees and their employer. Therefore, this form of conflict occurs within the organization, and this is manifested in a situation when people’s values or morals are compromised. On the other hand, these conflicts results to a significant deal of stress among employees involved; in fact, they are expected to solve these problems depending on the situation (Rees & Porter, 2008, 64). Apparently, internal conflicts a significant impact on employees’ level of performance. In this case, in this case there is a need to deal with the situation of internal conflicts through talks in order to resolve the conflict or avoid an escalation of the situation. Ex ternal Conflict External causes of conflict involve people within the organization, and outsiders; in fact, these forms of conflicts are subject to interventions by outsiders, who are observers such as customers and suppliers. On the other hand, external conflicts result from management styles, whereby the owner may fail to set well with employees in an organization. Furthermore, there are cases that involve government intervention in the business, which may result to conflicts between the government and employees. 2. b) Critically assess with reference to course concepts, possible strategies that an international manager may use to successfully manage conflict that is having a negative effect on operations. Introduction There are cases where conflicts in the workplace have positive or negative impact; for instance, the positive impact involves facilitating identification of issues that are points of weaknesses in the organization. Another positive impact involves improvement of neg otiation and mediation skills in the working places (Edwards & Rees, 2006, 45). Nevertheless, there are cases when these conflicts become constant and overwhelming to employees, and this can have a negative impact on their productivity. In this case, this section of the paper will focus on presenting a critical assessment based on course concepts in order to identify relevant strategies can be applied by international managers in managing conflicts with negative impact on the organization. Mediation In situations of conflicts, there is a need for effective business practices such as mediation. In this case, there is a need for mediators who are personally involved in conflicts, whereby they are expected to offer unbiased opinions. Therefore, managers take the role of becoming mediators, whereby they engage in discussions regarding conflicts (Dowling, Festing & Engle, 2008, 30). In fact, these discussions are based on rules; for instance, managers can stipulate that employees should avoid behaviours such as yelling and portraying emotions since this can lead to escalation of these conflicts. In numerous cases, the mediators in organizations are human resource manager; thus, these managers are expected

Invisible Saviour Siblings Essay Example for Free

Invisible Saviour Siblings Essay The philosopher Immanuel Kant said â€Å"Treat others as an end and not as means to an end. † People need to value others for themselves rather than for what they can achieve by the means of them. The idea of selecting an embryo, conceived by IVF, which will become a child that can donate for an older sibling suffering from a genetic disease, has created a difficult moral dilemma. Concerns over the creation of what are called â€Å"savoir siblings† are specifically created to help an existing child. In the novel â€Å"My Sister’s Keeper† by Jodi Picoult there is a girl named Anna who was brought in to this world for the purpose to save her sister Kate. Anna suggests that while her method of coming into the world is not conventional, since most babies born are unwanted; she at least was a wanted child. But she is wanted as a product, as a medical treatment, as a donor. Anna came to a decision that she wanted to stop donating to her sister, so she starts a lawsuit for medical emancipation; the right to control her own body. The child is used as something instrumental and has a welcome that is far from being unconditional. Even the label savoir† is a misnomer. When we speak of a savoir we refer to someone who has made an active choice to donate. The child never has a choice. When a donation occurs it will have lifelong effects on the body. The possible psychological problem the child will have from being a savior sibling. The parents do not think about the saviour child in the terms of an individual. The parents need to realize that there is a line that separates the value of preserving life and the costs of the quality of life. When a child is born it is up to the parents to make the decisions for them, but what if the parents are not focus on that child? It is their zeal to make things better for their sick child, but the parents have forgotten that their donor child is a person with feelings, not a something just to pick at when needed. In the case of babies who are selected as a source of cells, the â€Å"savior is passive and is treated as a product. The choices being made about donation is not even being discussed about. Anna is not even being asked about what she wants to do, â€Å"You make it sound like there’s some process involved. Like there’s actually a choice. † (192) the parents are deciding what is for the best. They do not even consult with Anna about how she feels about everything. Anna had to quit hockey because she was missing two many games, but the only reason why she was missing games was that she had to be there when Kate might need something. Her choice to play hockey was taken away from her and no one in her family even cared. They did not even notice when she started to play hockey, so why would they notice when she stopped. There is a big chance that the family would not even listen to Anna if she would have said that she does not want to continue being the donor. The doctors do not ever consult with Anna about what she wanted to do; they only talked to the parents. They never let Anna make her choice. She was brought in this world as a savior sibling, but it did not mean to make her sacrifice her whole life. The use of savior siblings have raised the issue of the possibility of psychological trauma that the created sibling may suffer from knowing that they was created partly for reasons of imposed selflessness. The child could feel as if they had been used. The donor sibling would feel that they were around to provide â€Å"spare parts†, and were not valued for who they are. Remember the adolescent cry â€Å"I did not ask to be born† and add to it the accusation that the parents only had them to save their siblings life. The moment the child is brought in to this world they have a job to perform. How the parents treat Anna makes her feel like her only purpose in life is to help heal Kate. With these feelings it makes her think about what if Kate was not sick, â€Å"It made me wonder, though, what would have happened if Kate had been healthy. Chances are, I’d still be floating up in Heaven or wherever, waiting to be attached to a body to spend some time on Earth† (08). If Kate was healthy would the parents ever thought about having a third child. The parents once said that their family was complete with two children; each child favored a parent. Anna has matured faster than any child her age, because from the start of her life she was not fully allowed to be a child. She learnt early on that Kate was the main focus and everything else became second. Growing up is hard enough, but when there is question on ones existence it can have serious emotional effects. The child becomes lost in their quest for their own identity. Furthermore, if the treatment of the sick child is unsuccessful, their death can be much harder for the savior sibling, as they may feel as if they have failed. The child would have to go through the rest of their life feeling guiltily about not saving their sibling life. Donating an organ is not as simple as it sounds. The donor of the organ has to deal with limitations on their life. In the novel Anna is being pressured by her mother to donate her kidney to her sister Kate. Her mother does not think about the after effects of the surgery. Anna loves to play hockey, but donating her kidney will stop here from playing. Kidney organ donors should not participate in physical activity that could damage their other kidney. Anna’s mother Sara only concern is Kate, so when Anna wanted to go to Hockey camp her mother said no. Her mother is not caring for what Anna wants â€Å"Not because I am afraid of what might to Anna there, but because I am afraid of what might happen to Kate while her sister is gone. If Kate survives this latest relapse†¦.. we will need Anna-her blood, her stem cells, her tissue-right here. (269), she wanted Anna to be where she needed her. If Anna did go through with the surgery something could go wrong, but does her parents ever does comprehend it. If there were no complications with any of these procedures, the savior sibling would still stay in the hospital with stress and pain which they are not gaining any type of personal benefit. The mother will be so worried about Kate after the surgery; she will be by her side and not by Anna’s. The parents should not make an organ donation decision. It has to be Anna’s choice. Going through with a kidney donation, she would lose some quality of her life. While there is potential harm, it is not without potential benefits to the saviour sibling. The donor child might derive pleasure from knowing that he or she has saved his or her sibling’s life and would benefit from the saved child’s company. In this respect, it is appropriate to consider the welfare of the donor child within the context of the family since his or her social, emotional and psychological interests depend on the welfare of the child’s family. Saving the life of the existing sibling is also in his or her best interests. This will ensure a happier family (e. g. no grieving parents) from which the donor child would benefit. There are benefits to the child, but if the child is born and the transplant is made but is unsuccessful, what comes of the family at that point? The donor child would feel that they have fail in their job in helping to keep their sibling alive. If the transplant was successful, there is no time frame for a savior sibling to stop providing transplants for their older sibling. The donor sibling could chose not to donate later in life or chose to no longer accept the role of â€Å"saviour† for which they were originally conceived. The parents might not like that they brought this child in to this world for a certain purpose, but now the child does not want to donate anymore. The savior child would have no support from their family. They would feel that they had only one purpose; to save their sibling. Parents have more choices than ever before and they need to use every resource available to protect the health of their children, but there is a line that should not be crossed. There are potential harmful psychological effects on a child born not for itself, but to save another. If conception of saviour siblings for the donation of cord blood stem cells is permitted, what is to stop donation ending there. There may be an inevitable situation where the donor child will be expected to â€Å"donate† bone marrow in the event that the umbilical cord stem cell transplant fails or the sick sibling relapses and requires further treatment. If the child is under age, then the parents decide the choice for them and of course they would have the savior child donate whatever the sick child needs. Parents are blinded from seeing what is in the best interest for both of their children. The only thing that is on their mind is to save their sick child. If there is no benefit at all to the created saviour child, it appears hard to justify that it is humane and proper to use them to save the life of a sibling. Every parent has to seriously decide the point at which they will halt their efforts to save their sick child regardless of the potential outcome. There comes a point when people have to realize there is nothing they can do. The parents get so consumed in the entire process and the emotions involved in saving your sick child that they may lose the ability to know when to stop. Despite how gut-wrenching it may be, they have to stop, not only for the sake of their other children, but for the sake of their sick child. They should have to realize that there comes a point when vigilance becomes obsession and good intentions get warped and bastardized to the point that they do more harm than good. People should to write to President to have him put regulations on the use of Genetic technology for creation of savoir siblings. A savior sibling cannot lose their quality of life just because they were conceived with the weight of the family on their shoulders. The child should not go through life suffering, for the reason that she was conceived to help heal their sick sibling.

What Makes Us Different From Other Animals Philosophy Essay

What Makes Us Different From Other Animals Philosophy Essay In a world that has come so far ahead in evolutionary terms, what is it that makes us, human kind, so different from other animals. It has been said that chimps are our nearest evolutionary cousins, roughly 98 to 99 identical to humans at the genetic level. Any differences are said to come from the transmission of culture and our ability to build societies. Godelier stated that human beings, in contrast to other social animals, do not just live in society; they produce society in order to live. In this essay I will be looking to explore cultural and linguistic aspects which seek to differentiate us between other animals. Humans seem to encompass a culture which is not seen in any other animal. In Lewiss lecture (15.10.12), culture was referred to as seas of history which bind humans together. In DAndrades article of culture and language, he refers to culture as being a social heritage of learning which includes a number of things such as beliefs and techniques which are independent of biological processes. For him, there are two sides to culture, one being a physical manifestation and the other side, a mental manifestation. Both sides need to be present in order for culture to be passed on from generation to generation. For this to happen, culture needs to comprise of meaning and be symbolic, culture must be also external in the form of actions and signs (1995:223). Boesch and Tomasello (1998:602) note that human cultural traditions have had modifications over generations also known as the ratchet effect. The ratchet effect requires that humans imitate from one another. This is what sets us apart from other animals and is so unique to us. Humans have cumulative cultural evolution, the ability to accumulate over time results in complex tools and languages in modern time (Tomasello et al. 2003:121). The use of tools as technical intelligence is an evolutionary advantage which humans have. Washburn (1959) argued that selective pressure resulted in physical changes in the hand. Over generations, the uses of tools became part of our culture, as humans were required to use precision grip, the consequence of which changed the human hand. However, it cannot be said that the modifications of the human cultural artefact, such as tools, are the creation of one individual human brain. Modifications over generations were made to aid change and therefore inv entions are transmissions of accumulative knowledge, which is a characteristic of all human cultures. (Lewis 2012) In comparison, animals such as chimpanzees experience slippage, whereby chimpanzee traditions are often lost as a consequence of drift, inventing constantly and branching. (Lewis 2012). Tomasello et al. have hypothesized that chimpanzee cultural traditions and artefacts do not show the ratchet effect. This is because the ratchet effect depends of innovations and imitative learning (1993: 603). Even though chimpanzees are innovators they lack uniformity and the active teaching of such cultures, so culture is lost. Lewis states that the ratchet effect is ruined through emulative learning (2012). Therefore the transmission of chimpanzee culture can be seen to be as ineffective. However, it could be deemed that any assumptions made about chimpanzees and their lack of cumulative cultural evolution is problematic. Boesch and Tomasello argue that 30 years is not long enough to make the judgement that chimpanzee practices do not show the ratchet effect. And even if evidence suggests that chimpanzees do show this cumulative cultural evolution, it may be restricted to a small population or to certain cultural traditions (1998:602). In Tomasello and Rakoczys study into human cognition, they explain that the most fundamental cognitive skill, are those that involved the understanding of persons, also known as the theory of mind (2003:122). According to the American Psychological Association  (APA) theory of mind is the ability to imagine or make deductions about the mental states of other individuals. Humans have an innate capacity to mind-read, the capability to understand one another is necessary in order for language to progress, complex co-operation in situations such as at school or work requires this ability to mind read, which makes culture possible (Lewis 2012). If humans did not have theory of mind, it would be impossible for society to exist as it does presently, humans heavily rely on this ability everyday unknowingly. However although this mind-reading attribute is a fundamental skill in humans, Call and Tomasello in answer to Premack and Woodruff, have found that chimpanzees do in fact encompass what is known to man as theory of mind (2008:190). They argue that studies of chimpanzees showed that they were able to not only understand human goals (which was the original aim of Premack and Woodruffs study), but were able to understand human intentions. However it cannot be said that chimpanzee understanding can be compared to that of a fully fledged human. In my opinion, animals such as chimpanzees must acquire the minimum amount of theory of mind for evolutionary reasons within their own animal kingdom. Animals, on a smaller scale, most likely understand thoughts and emotions of others within their species, otherwise relationships between animals would be unheard of. Vilensky et al. (1982) state that, the human brain differs from those of other animals. This is due to humans having a greater capacity for complex language and an innate interest in speaking language. According to Nowak, in his study into the biology of language, Language is the most important evolutionary invention of the last few million years. Language allows humans to express their ideas and for the exchange of information. The evolution from animal communication to human language is an adaptation that has been necessary in order for our species to pass on culture and efficiently aids survival (2000:1615). According to Miller (1981), the ability to speak is the most complex mechanical motion the human body can perform. Speaking requires the synchronisation of various parts of the vocal chord within a few hundredths of a second. Nowak suggests that the reason that primates, our closes living relatives, do not have complex language is due to our ancestral lines. As a consequence of evolution, generations were able to build our language instinct from material that was already present in our ancestor species at that time (2000:1616). Therefore, the ability to form language has been firmly set in our genome and is part of our biology. Many anthropologists argue that language ability is selected because language increases the potential for cooperation, manipulating other creatures, or dealing with large groups. However, it could be argued that if language was selected based on these reasons, then why dont other animals have the ability to speak. Therefore it must be that the reasons for humans having the ability to speak are unexplainable (Nowak 2002). Language is therefore unique to humans and therefore distinguishes them from other animals. In conclusion, it has been shown that culture and language is what seems to differentiate humans from other animals. Although animals seem to show evidence of having theory of mind, they cannot express this understanding the way humans can. So it can also be said that humans uniquely acquire theory of mind. However, in many areas it is not possible to see any clear cut answers due to lack of information. The fact that we have not studied chimpanzees or any other animals in their natural environment for long enough, means that it is likely that any comparisons made will be lacking in validity. Looking at humans and other animals comparatively, it seems that it is difficult to clearly differentiate humans from other animals. The overlapping features that we come across shows that although humans may have evolved there are aspects of man that will link them to other animals.

Reflective Essay on depression and mental illness

Reflective Essay on depression and mental illness Depression is the commonest mental illness in the world yet only a few can tell you what exactly it is. Most people can well enough to recognise signs and symptoms of heart attack, diabetes, breast cancer and many more medical conditions. This statement is not only true for the general population, medical practitioner are no exclusion. Many different impression, perception and thought about depression from one person to another person, from one culture to another culture and from one place to another place. For me what is common throughout the world about this mental illness is ignorant. No wonder why John Kirwan, former New Zealand All Black rugby player, now rugby coach, recently said about his depression: Beating that was the hardest thing I had to do in my life. I didnt have a clue what was wrong with me, nor did lots of the doctors I saw. I finally found a doctor who really got it, understood. Thats what you need. There are so many preconceptions out there about mental illness. Before I learn this psychiatry module about a year ago, I like many of my friends thought that depression is not so common and it is actually not an illness of any kind. However after knowing that approximately about 20% of women and 12% of men worldwide suffer from depression1, which is higher than prevalence of other common disease such as diabetes where worldwide prevalence is about 2.8% in year 20002, it changes my perspectives on depression. Interestingly even though depression is very common I rarely encounter any patient who was diagnosed with depression during my medical and surgical attachment. I only saw one patient with depression for the whole attachment. This totally contradicts with what I learn where prevalence for depression among patient in hospital is about 10%1. This makes me think why such a gap occurs between what I learn and what I encounter in a real world. I began to question myself in lots of different ways in order to answer this question. I start looking back to myself first how my perception toward depression before I learn about this mental illness. I was clueless about depression. I used to have perception that depression has the same meaning to sadness. Depression is a normal thing to happen to someone that encounter unfortunate event in their life. I never knew depression is a mental illness that needs to be diagnosed and treated accordingly. I never heard people went to a doctor because they feel their life miserable and I also never heard a doctor prescribing a medication to patient because of depression. That was me before I learn this psychiatry module. Majority people in my country, Malaysia, have the same perception like me. There never knew that depression is a mental illness where it has specific criteria to diagnose and need to be treated accordingly like other disease. Why it is like this? In my opinion this is very much related to how culture in my country which is eastern culture where a lot of people believe in mysticism. Even though majority of them will seek medical practitioner when they get other physical illness but when it come to the illness related to mood, feeling or behaviour where there is no obvious physical pain, they prefer to go to shaman or spiritual healer. They believe some other spirit are harming and controlling their inner self. Although many of them are Muslim where they shouldnt believe in such away but a very long history of mysticism in that part of the world has made it hard to be washed away from people perception. This is the perception about depression in this part of the world. Here in Ireland or in the western culture, I find peoples perception toward depression is quite different. Many of people here know the depression is part of mental illness. However a lot of them as other place in the world dont know what exactly we called depression as a mental illness. If they do get depression they dont know to whom they should consult, how to deal with it and what the treatment option are available. Not many advertisements about the illness can be found out there in the public. Apart from that depression as other mental illness carry some stigma in the community here. Stigma that there is no cure for the depression, the depressed person will never come back to normal and they are dangerous to public. It seems clear to me that many factors why people are less likely to seek medical attention when they have depression. As many as two thirds of the people with depression do not realize that they have a treatable illness and do not seek treatment3. Lack of knowledge together with misconception what exactly the depression is unable people to distinguish and determine whether they are having depression or something else. As bad as ignorant about the disease itself, people dont know what to do when they know they have depression. Stigma that surrounding the depression also contribute to this phenomenon. The evidence for this is clearly stated in the conclusion of the research done by Lisa J. Barney et al where they wrote self- and perceived-stigmatizing responses to help-seeking for depression are prevalent in the community and are associated with reluctance to seek professional help4. Then I start to question myself it is only because of the public that do not seek medical treatment that contribute to the under diagnose of depression or there are others factor determine it. When I read an article title Depression over and under diagnosed in primary care4, it make me realise that most GPs have difficulty in diagnosing depression. According to the article a meta-analysis of more than 50,000 patients has shown that general practitioners (GPs) have great difficulty separating those with and without depression, with substantial numbers of missed and misidentified cases of depression5. Doctors in the primary care is the first medical person that patient will come and complaint about their depression symptoms. However if most of these doctors fail to recognise and diagnose it, this will bring the number of undiagnosed depression further up. Why is this happen? Why depression is so common to be unrecognised even by a doctor? I dont know the exact reason but for me may be because of the symptom of depression is a lot and varies from one person to another person make it harder to diagnose. According to the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for a major depressive episode includes at least 5 of the symptoms which are low mood, anhedonia, significant weight loss, insomnia, loss of energy, psychomotor agitation, feeling worthlessness, low concentration and recurrent thoughts of death for the same 2-week period, representing a change from previous functioning, must include either low mood or anhedonia1. Apart from this criteria patient also present with atypical presentation where major depressive disorder may not initially present. In primary setting patient with depression often come with symptoms such as fatigue, headache, abdominal discomfort or change in weight1. Patients can become more irritable rather than low mood or sad. Initial symptoms of depression in children is harder to recognise and can be misleading as the children may present with irritability, decline in school performance or social withdrawal1. Misdiagnose depression in patients in primary care will lead to inappropriate treatment and poorer outcomes6. In term of treatment of depression, I learnt about biopsychosocial approach which is for me is very unique module of treatment. This type of treatment helps to tackle each aspect of the depression including brain pathophysiology, psychological state and social circumstances of the patient. For most patients with mild to moderate depression psychotherapy (cognitive behavioural therapy, interpersonal therapy) is the treatment of choice. However, the combined approach with medication generally provides the patient with the quickest and most sustained response1. Usually, antidepressant medication such as SSRIs is used for severe depression. In conclusion, learning psychiatry module has change a lot of my perspective toward depression and mental illness generally. It has exposed me to a different and new perception in this topic. Before this I see depression as something that not important to diagnose and treat but now I see depression as a very serious illness that can lead to fatality if left untreated. I will make sure that in the future, I always put depression as part of my differential diagnosis for most medical or surgical cases that I encounter as a doctor.

Gay Marriage Essay -- Same-Sex Marriage Essays

Gay Marriage There seem to be Specific time in history where certain issues define the culture tension in a society. They become representative of large worldview and clearly emphasize the battle between divergent moral and spiritual perspectives. Homosexual marriage in the United States is one of these issues. In the past five years, there have been various threats and debates about the possibility of legalizing homosexual union. The issue took centre stage in February largely. The U.S Senate quashes a proposed constitutional amendment to ban gays from marrying. President Bush and other same-sex marriage opponents say they will try again. Most of Americans are against same-sex marriage because how the nation would change if gay were allowed to marry. Gay marriage could affects on American society in many different ways. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Polygamy. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Federal spending. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Religious speech. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Children. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Civil Rights. First, it is more likely to lead to polygamy. For instance, says legalizing same-sex marriage will open the floodgates to polygamy. The more government moves towards sanctioning homosexual relationships, the less right it has to prevent plural marriage. The idea that same-sex marriage could lead to polygamy is â€Å"Not beyond the bounds of reality, although incredibly unlikely,† said Michael Allen who teaches constitutional law at Stetson university college of law in Gulf port. We do not see that is as a realistic view. For instance, it is highly doubtful that solemnizing the union of accepting adults, equal in power in their relationships, would lead to acceptance of polygamous unions, which have, throughout most of history in those societies that have accepted them. â€Å"If one man can marry anther man, you need to ask then, what is it that you doing by prohibiting one man from marrying two women?† â€Å"What’s the evil that you are tying to prevent?† â€Å"If same sex marriage is legalized there is no natural stopping point in redefining what is or is not acceptable.† It would take much longer to legalize polygamy then gay marriage because it is more socially taboo.† That is the reason that polygamists would get away with trying to take credit on same sex marriage (Attorney John Bucher). Second, gay marriage will affect on t... ...arched alongside Martin Luther King Jr, said the proposed Marriage protection Act was a step backward in civil rights. â€Å"Those of us who came through the civil rights movement saw the federal courts as a sympathetic referee. If it had not been for the federal courts, where would we be? If it had not been for the supreme court of 1954, there would still be legalized segregation in America to vote for this legislation would be like members of congress trying to stand in the courthouse door, just like Government. Wallace stood in the schoolhouse door to stop the integration of Alabama schools today it is gay marriage, tomorrow it will be something else†. In conclusion, it seems that the basic problem facing the problem is the limits between a right and privilege. The problem with an issue like marriage is that it is neither a right nor a privilege. In its simplest form a marriage is a union between consenting souls to share assets, responsibility, and form a â€Å"Unit†. We have the right to life, liberty, and a pursuit of happiness, we do not; but it is a system that not only works well but has also been established as our system of laws. So the idea about gay marriage should be banned.

Presidents :: essays research papers

With the United States economy in a state of recession from the empty promises brought forth by President George Bush, the country needed a change for the better. President Bush’s policies were not pulling through, and the American people were expecting results. Re-election was nearing for Bush and he really needed to get his act together if he wanted another term in office. Out of no where a former governor was leading the polls over Republican candidate, President George Bush. Clinton had focused a lot of his efforts towards the younger generation of 18 to 25 years. Bush was also behind because his programs created the present recession the nation was experiencing. Clinton spoke of new job opportunities and better wages, which appealed to the younger generation, because they were starting out in their lives and more jobs meant more options. Many people felt as though they were being betrayed by Bush, because of his empty "No New Taxes" policy. Another factor that swayed votes Clinton’s way, was the change in ideas of the "Reagan Democrats", who were registered Democrats which voted Republican. These voters realized that Bush was not following through with his promises and they wanted results. Families were being hurt because of unemployment and the "Reagan Democrats" needed to provide for their families. One major issue was the cultural conflict of welfare. Americans were becoming lazy and did not "need" jobs as long as they were on welfare. Bush just let this issue go, while Clinton made a plan stating that after two years of welfare, everyone capable of working would have to accept a job, or training for a job. This policy attracted voters of the working and middle class population. This policy also showed that the Democratic Party is a party of workers and doers as opposed to slackers. It says they will protect the workers of America. Because of all of these factors, Clinton has an astonishing lead over his opposing mate. This lead continues on and leads Clinton onto his election and the re-election. Clinton is a very well-liked president, as well as effective. Employment was steadily on the rise, and the inflation rate was lower than it had been in many years. Clinton was able to negotiate foreign policy, he was able to handle domestic affairs and he was liked by the people. He also looked good on camera which was another asset he had in his favor. Bill Clinton’s approval rating was very high and he was controlling the country with dignity and competence. The unthinkable then happened, he was caught having an affair with a White House intern, Monica Lewinski. This scandal plagued the White House for many months. Clinton was even put on trial, accused of perjury.

African American Culture Essay

African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U. S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as â€Å"people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa. â€Å"[1] African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U. S. of survivors of the Middle Passage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub-Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans’ desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br’er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker’s tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980’s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or â€Å"Black Arts Movement. † The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin’), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that â€Å"black is beautiful. † During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the â€Å"Negro National Anthem† by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R&B developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of ‘rapping’ grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic] The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name â€Å"The Highwaymen†. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic]. A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, â€Å"†¦every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head†¦ â€Å", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as â€Å"crowns. † Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one’s hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in God’s eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one’s master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: â€Å"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa†¦ consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction† Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions. Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to â€Å"jump the broom† as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes cre.